Category: Dermatology

The 4 Primary Preservative Agents Used During Ancient Egyptian Mummification

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The 4 main chemicals used by the Ancient Egyptians for mummification were natron as a drying agent, palm wine to cleanse the body and its cavities after organ removal, cedar oil to anoint, and bitumen as a glue. Natron is a naturally occurring mineral mixture primarily composed of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate, with traces of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate, and is harvested from dry lake beds (e.g. Wadi Natrun etc.). Natron’s high alkalinity and hygroscopic properties allow it to desiccate human remains by drawing out moisture, whilst simultaneously inhibiting bacterial growth and chemically breaking down lipids. Beyond preservation, natron also symbolized ritual purification and was used ubiquitously within Ancient Egypt (e.g. religious ceremonies, glass manufacturing, personal hygiene etc.). Palm wine, a fermented beverage comprised of the sap of date palms, was highly valued for its antiseptic and moderate alcoholic properties throughout history within Egypt. During mummification, wt/wety (pronounced “weh-tee”) the Ancient Egyptian term for “embalmers”, used palm wine to rinse the thoracic and abdominal cavities, ensuring that residual organic tissue was sterilized and virtually all odors eliminated. This cleansing was often accompanied by aromatic herbs and spices, believed to be used for both hygiene as well as ritual purification, reflecting the Ancient Egyptian ideological concern for both physical preservation and symbolic purification of the vessel for the soul. Cedar oil, a bit of a misnomer as it was often derived from juniper or other closely related coniferous tree sources rather than the cedar tree itself, was prized for its resinous, aromatic, and antimicrobial characteristics. Cedar oil was applied as an anointing oil to both the skin and the ḥbsw/ḥebesw (pronounced “heh-bes-oo”), which means “bandages” in the Late Egyptian language, but more literally translates to “wrappings”, both to soften and preserve tissues but also to imbue human remains with the fragrance of soil/wood, smoke, and camphor; scents associated with the pantheon of Egyptian deities. For those who could not afford this preservation method, cedar oil could be injected into the body cavity directly, in which its solvent properties dissolved soft tissues, leaving only skin and bone once the natron had absorbed the liquefied remains, raised the overall pH level to halt decomposition, and dried the cavity completely. Lastly bitumen was used, a naturally occurring petroleum product also referred to as “natural asphalt”, which was a black, viscous substance sourced from various geological deposits within the region (eg. the Dead Sea etc.). Although not universally used throughout all dynasties of the Ancient Egyptian state, bitumen became increasingly common in the most recent phases of Ancient Egyptian history, particularly during the Greco Roman period from 332 B.C. – 642 A.D. Bitumen’s adhesive and waterproofing capabilities allowed it to bind wrappings and seal the body shut, and its dark coloration may have been deliberately chosen to evoke Osiris, the Ancient Egyptian god of the underworld, often depicted with black skin and symbolizing both fertility and rebirth. Additionally, in terms of chemical composition, bitumen provided durability to the embalming balms used, with modern day analyses revealing it was typically blended with resins, lipids, and waxes rather than used in its most pure form

The Caribbean Village of Biological Males Born Without Male Genitalia

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There is a village in the Dominican Republic called Salinas, in which 1 in 90 of the people born are born as males, with testicles, but without a penis, because of misconstrued instructions at birth. In males, the gene on the Y chromosome, specifically the Sex Determining Region Y (SRY), instructs the gonads to become testicles. This leads to the creation of dihydrotestosterone which is a stronger version of testosterone. Dihydrotestosterone transforms the tubercle which all males and females have, into a penis. Females do not make dihydrotestosterone, therefore their gonads become ovaries, and the tubercle becomes a clitoris. Infants perceived as female at birth, due to a lack of dihydrotestosterone during fetal development, later develop a penis during puberty when testosterone triggers penile growth, as it does in typical male development. Those who lack the ability to create dihydrotestosterone, as is the case with those born as males but raised as females in the Caribbean village of Salinas, Dominican Republic where it is common, are technically male, but without a penis, a condition referred to as “5 alpha reductase deficiency”. This condition is quite well accepted in this part of the world and even has a term which is “guevedoce(s)”, (pronounced “guava-doh-chey”) which means “penis/testicles at 12” in Spanish. This condition whilst common in this region of the Caribbean, it is very rare in other parts of the world

The Color of Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Cleopatra’s Skin

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Cleopatra VII, the last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt, was of Macedonian descent, which makes her Greek, as her family was established by Ptolemy I, a soldier who later became a General within Alexander III’s military force, a person more commonly referred to as “Alexander the Great”. The Ptolemies practiced interfamily marriage, meaning siblings, or more uncommonly cousins etc., as Cleopatra herself married her brother, therefore her ancestry was predominantly Greek. The caveat to this is that the identity of Cleopatra’s mother is unclear, leaving a lot of room for speculation of potential Egyptian as well as other African or regional influences. As for her skin color specifically, historical depictions and recorded texts do not provide clear evidence, but based upon her Greek heritage, she likely had a light olive complexion, common in persons of Mediterranean lineage during the modern day. Cleopatra’s exact skin tone however remains uncertain without genetic evidence as her remains have never been identified and/or located

The Reason Japanese Samurai Shave the Top of Their Head

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The practice of “chonmage” (pronounced “chon-mah-geh”) which means “tied knot on top” in Japanese is the reason Japanese samurai shaved the tops of their heads, in a pattern reminiscent of male pattern baldness. Japanese Samurai shaved the top of their heads in this particular style for both pragmatic and symbolic reasons. The shaved portion of the head helped secure their helmets referred to as “kabuto” which means “helmet” in Japanese, making them more comfortable but also prevented overheating during battle. Over time, the chonmage became a status symbol within Japanese society, symbolically representing a samurai’s loyalty and discipline. The chonmage aesthetic also reflected the samurai’s adherence to Bushido, the warrior code. Different variations of chonmage emerged within Japan over the centuries, with the style remaining a distinctive hallmark of the samurai class until the Meiji Restoration in 1868 when Japan modernized and abolished the traditional feudal samurai system

How Armor Was Decorated During the Medieval Period

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Armor was embroidered during the Medieval period by using oil and lead paint to mark off ornate areas which would stand out and perhaps be decorated with gold or other precious metals in a process referred to as “gilding”. Gold does not easily bind to any type of metal and the only way to properly do so is to undergo a process which involves mixing the gold with mercury. Once applied, a mixture of salt, vinegar, and copper sulphate, which is root killer, makes a paste which eats through the metal leaving the painted parts untouched, and resulting in an etched piece of armor. Blacksmiths sometimes heat treated armor which turned it a blueish hue which essentially rusts the metal as it is referred to as an “oxide” and an oxide occurs when a metal comes into contact with oxygen which reacts with the metal and creates a deposit when heated to a very specific temperature, as the heat is what shifts the red color of rust to the blue area of the color spectrum

The Development of Lock Hospitals Within England for Female Sex Workers During the 19th Century

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Due to the fact that sexually transmitted infections and diseases were rampant among English soldiers, in 1864 novel legislation entitled the Contagious Diseases Act was passed which permitted any woman suspected of prostitution as young as 13 years of age, to be forcibly examined by a physician. Institutions referred to as “lock hospitals” were established and setup so that women suspected of spreading disease could be detained and examined, and if they were positive in their evaluation, they could then be incarcerated for up to 3 months. It never occurred however to the English government that men could also spread sexually transmitted infections and diseases which is why men were immune from this legislation and a key reason as to why the problem was never resolved. Because of this, in 1886, this legislation was repealed

The Toxicity of Tanneries During the French Revolution

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One of the largest contributors to pollution during the French Revolution was the work of tanneries, which converted what is essentially animal skin, into leather goods. First the hide was immersed in an alkaline lime and water solution for up to 3 weeks, then it was brought out and shaved for both the hair on one side of the hide and the dissolved fat referred to as “sinew” on the other side. Once this process had been complete, dog and bird feces were mixed with hot water and human urine to create a bacterial cocktail which would work together to soften the hide and help it absorb dye. All of these components were dumped into local water sources once they had served their purpose which made living around them nearly impossible, with many people developing ulcerative lesions upon their throats when around these ingredients for extended periods of time

The Correlation Between Cats and the Bubonic Plague of Europe

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During the Middle Ages and up until the Salem Witch Trials, cats were killed alongside their owners who were believed to be practicing the dark arts of magic, sorcery, and witchcraft. Typically cats were burned alive in ceremonial bonfires. Ironically, had this not occurred, the Bubonic Plague probably wouldn’t have been as prolific as it was as the fleas found upon the rats who carried the disease, would have been killed alongside their host by the very cats which were killed in droves by human beings. Cats are partially resistant to the Bubonic Plague but with few to keep the rat population in check, the plague was able to wash over Europe and kill 25,000,000 (25 million) people which was 25% of the European population

The Earliest Discovered Sewing Tools for Surgery and Textiles

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The earliest discovered eyed needles designed for surgery are from 30,000 B.C. This specific artifact was discovered within a cave located in Aurignacia, France. Additionally, other ancient needles have been uncovered within the region of Altai Krai, Russia, specialist needles without an eye but with a split head designed to grip the thread. These tools which are crafted from bird bone by the Denisovans, date back to 40,000 B.C. – 30,000 B.C. Both discoveries indicate that early human beings had developed sophisticated tools and techniques for sewing, tools which could have been used for many tasks ranging from textile repairs to complex tasks like surgery

How the Rabies Virus Pathogen Infects and Propagates Within Mammalian Hosts

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The rabies virus causes hostility within its host because aggressive behavior (e.g. biting etc.) is crucial for the transmission of the pathogen due to the fact that the virus is primarily secreted within the saliva of its hosts, although it can be present within and therefore transmitted via other tissues as well (e.g. infected brain tissue coming into contact with the open wound of a host etc.). The rabies virus primarily affects the central nervous system of its host, involving both the brain and spinal cord, causing inflammation of the brain referred to as “encephalitis”, and triggering various other neurological symptoms which help aide propogation (e.g. aggression, confusion, hallucinations etc.). The rabies virus travels along nerves from the wound site of the infection to the brain, where it then replicates and causes inflammation. Once the rabies virus reaches the brain, it can spread rapidly throughout the body via the central nervous system, leading to severe neurological symptoms and death in 100% of cases if left untreated