Category: Philosophy

The Syrian Public’s View and Treatment of Members of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria After Death

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In Syria, it is considered banned within society to properly bury supporters of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. When the bodies of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria supporters are found, they are often cleared away with machinery and placed into dump trucks to be removed to a dumping site alongside the rubble found around them (e.g. collapsed buildings). Civilians are provided proper Islamic burials if possible but supporters of Daesh, the Syrian name for the organization, are not provided this last right and/or dignity. Syrians who participate in this practice justify doing so using the logic that because supporters of the Islamic State directly caused the devastation which Syria is now experiencing, therefore they too deserve to be removed alongside side it in the same mechanistic manner

The Reason Alexander the Great Invaded India in 327 B.C.

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Macedonian king Alexander the III, more commonly referred to as “Alexander the Great”, campaigned into India due to the fact that he was inspired to do so by one of his personal heroes; Dionysus (pronounced “dai-oh-nai-sis”). Dionysus campaigned into India in a Greek epic Alexander was familiar with, and Alexander III believed that if he did this as well, he would return to Macedonia, Greece an immortal, joining Dionysus and the pantheon of the Ancient Greek gods

The Origin of the Weekend for Workers

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The weekend was invented in the 19th century in Marseille, France (pronounced “mar-say”) as part of a broader societal shift during the Industrial Revolution. During the period, workers within factories and shipyards were often laboring 6 – 7 days per week, with little rest in between shifts. Because Marseille had a bustling port with a strong labor movement and  growing working class, reformers and unions began to push for a scheduled rest day for leisure and recovery. By the mid 19th century, experiments of giving workers Saturday afternoons off began to spread rapidly, which permitted workers more time for their families, religious observance(s), and day to day community life. This practice gradually evolved into the 2 day weekend, beginning in France and then being disseminated across Europe and North America. World governments and industries permitted this shift to occur because it became understood that rest improved productivity and overall job satisfaction

The First Person to Publish an Encyclopedia

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Naturalis Historia was the first compiled collection of writing, which during the modern day would be referred to as an “encyclopedia.” Written by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century A.D., Naturalis Historia was divided into 37 unique books and contained more than 20,000 individual facts. Naturalis Historia was comprised of a vast array of subjects including astronomy, geography, zoology, botany, medicine, and even artwork, making it one of the most ambitious attempts in history to catalog and consolidate the entirety of human knowledge. Unlike earlier publications which often focused upon a singular discipline (e.g. medicine but not science or law but not ethics etc.), Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia compilation sought to collect and streamline the entirety of the natural world and the human understanding of it into a single reference point. Pliny the Elder’s encyclopedic vision influenced scholars for centuries after his death, and his work served as one of the main pillars of Medieval and Renaissance education in the centuries which followed. Shortly after completing this compendium in 77 A.D., Pliny the Elder died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. at age 55 whilst attempting to rescue those who could not escape from the volcano’s clutch. Fortunately, the entirety of his Naturalis Historia work survived this natural disaster

The 4 Primary Preservative Agents Used During Ancient Egyptian Mummification

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The 4 main chemicals used by the Ancient Egyptians for mummification were natron as a drying agent, palm wine to cleanse the body and its cavities after organ removal, cedar oil to anoint, and bitumen as a glue. Natron is a naturally occurring mineral mixture primarily composed of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate, with traces of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate, and is harvested from dry lake beds (e.g. Wadi Natrun etc.). Natron’s high alkalinity and hygroscopic properties allow it to desiccate human remains by drawing out moisture, whilst simultaneously inhibiting bacterial growth and chemically breaking down lipids. Beyond preservation, natron also symbolized ritual purification and was used ubiquitously within Ancient Egypt (e.g. religious ceremonies, glass manufacturing, personal hygiene etc.). Palm wine, a fermented beverage comprised of the sap of date palms, was highly valued for its antiseptic and moderate alcoholic properties throughout history within Egypt. During mummification, wt/wety (pronounced “weh-tee”) the Ancient Egyptian term for “embalmers”, used palm wine to rinse the thoracic and abdominal cavities, ensuring that residual organic tissue was sterilized and virtually all odors eliminated. This cleansing was often accompanied by aromatic herbs and spices, believed to be used for both hygiene as well as ritual purification, reflecting the Ancient Egyptian ideological concern for both physical preservation and symbolic purification of the vessel for the soul. Cedar oil, a bit of a misnomer as it was often derived from juniper or other closely related coniferous tree sources rather than the cedar tree itself, was prized for its resinous, aromatic, and antimicrobial characteristics. Cedar oil was applied as an anointing oil to both the skin and the ḥbsw/ḥebesw (pronounced “heh-bes-oo”), which means “bandages” in the Late Egyptian language, but more literally translates to “wrappings”, both to soften and preserve tissues but also to imbue human remains with the fragrance of soil/wood, smoke, and camphor; scents associated with the pantheon of Egyptian deities. For those who could not afford this preservation method, cedar oil could be injected into the body cavity directly, in which its solvent properties dissolved soft tissues, leaving only skin and bone once the natron had absorbed the liquefied remains, raised the overall pH level to halt decomposition, and dried the cavity completely. Lastly bitumen was used, a naturally occurring petroleum product also referred to as “natural asphalt”, which was a black, viscous substance sourced from various geological deposits within the region (eg. the Dead Sea etc.). Although not universally used throughout all dynasties of the Ancient Egyptian state, bitumen became increasingly common in the most recent phases of Ancient Egyptian history, particularly during the Greco Roman period from 332 B.C. – 642 A.D. Bitumen’s adhesive and waterproofing capabilities allowed it to bind wrappings and seal the body shut, and its dark coloration may have been deliberately chosen to evoke Osiris, the Ancient Egyptian god of the underworld, often depicted with black skin and symbolizing both fertility and rebirth. Additionally, in terms of chemical composition, bitumen provided durability to the embalming balms used, with modern day analyses revealing it was typically blended with resins, lipids, and waxes rather than used in its most pure form

The Role of Jewish Financiers Within Venice, Italy During the Renaissance and the Reason Christians Became Capable of Charging Interest Upon Loans

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During the Renaissance, Jews were tolerated in Venice, Italy because they could provide an invaluable service which Christian financiers and merchants were forbidden to do which was to charge interest upon a loan, a concept referred to as “usury”, derived from the Latin term “usura” which means “use” or “interest”. Christians considered charging interest to be a sin and therefore could not partake in this economic exchange. Unfortunately, the Catholic Church’s Medieval laws against usury acted as a major obstacle for the development of finance within Europe during this period. Jews were not technically permitted to lend capital with interest, but those who did relied upon a convenient clause found within the 23rd chapter of Deuteronomy of the Christian Bible which states that lending to a brother at interest was forbidden but that a stranger was a different matter all together. These Jewish lenders interpreted this scripture as a means to provide the ability to lend to Christians, as Christian’s were not considered brothers of the Jews in a religious context during this period, but they would still not be capable of lending finance to other fellow Jews, as these members of society were viewed as brothers regardless of familial ties. Eventually Christian’s were able to circumvent the prohibition of charging interest, primarily because of Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, one of the wealthiest entrepreneurs within Italy during the Renaissance. Medici was able to evade Christian usury legislation as Jewish bankers did because of a clever device of trade which made profit upon exchanging multiple currencies rather than interest rates alone. No “interest” paid to Medici meant no sin had been committed. Medici’s business model took a small commission for each currency conversion rendered, with the size of the loan directly impacting the commission of the person who lent it

The Mathematical Probability of Miracles

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Many would argue that miracles have a 1:1,000,000 (1 to 1 million) ratio, and others whom are more conservative would argue that miracles have a 1:1,000,000,000 (1 to 1 billion) ratio, meaning for every 1 miracle, 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) events occur without a miracle. 1 in 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) sounds astronomically high, as on the entire planet there are only 8,100,000,000 (8.1 billion) human beings, but if a person draws 6 cards from a standard deck of cards, whatever sequence they draw has a 1:14,000,000,000 (1 in 14 billion) chance of occurring. Because of this, one could argue that every hand of cards drawn is a miracle and not a random act of chance. This logic applies to all randomized items or numerical values (e.g. first 6 digits of a Social Insurance Number or last 6 digits of a phone number etc.). What humans refer to as a “miracle” is often merely a statistical anomaly, an event with low probability, but not impossibility, something which is guaranteed to occur given enough repetitions are made. The sheer volume of possible outcomes virtually guarantees that rare patterns will emerge eventually, not because they are miraculous, but because the mathematics demand it be so

The Period When Human Begins Developed a Throw Away Cultural Mindset

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Human beings have arguably been a throw away culture, or at the very least mindset and culture, since 1892 when bottle caps were first introduced. The trend has become more and more prevalent to the point where we now replace an entire transmission rather than a gasket. This shift reflects the rise of planned obsolescence, in which products are intentionally designed to have limited lifespans and/or be extremely difficult or expensive to repair. As manufacturing has become cheaper and mass production more efficient, the economic incentive to discard and replace overtook the values of maintenance and longevity. In all industries (eg. electronics, automotive, fashion etc.), repair has been sidelined in favor of convenience and profit. The result is a global surge in waste, with millions of tons of usable materials ending up in landfills each year. Fortunately, there is an expanding movement advocating for the right to repair one’s own possessions which is now acting as a counterbalance to this disposable mindset

The View of the Birthday Within Ancient Rome

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In Ancient Rome, birthdays referred to as “dies natalis” which means “day of birth” in Latin, were deeply personal and spiritual occasions. Far from the cake and candle rituals of the modern day, the Ancient Romans viewed birthdays as a time to honor their genius, for men, or juno, for women. The genius and juno were guardian spirits believed to guide and protect a person throughout their life. These divine entities were believed to be intrinsically tied to one’s fate, character, and destiny which is why they were revered. The Ancient Romans made offerings on their birthday to their guardian spirit (e.g. wine, incense, small cakes etc.). These rituals were performed at home, sometimes accompanied by prayers or dedications at small residential shrines. For those with wealth or higher status, birthday observances could include more elaborate ceremonies (e.g. feasts with reclining guests, music, gift giving etc.). Even with these additions however, the spiritual aspect of the holiday remained central regardless of class

The Reason Living Wills and Last Will and Testaments Were Developed

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Living wills and testaments were designed because it was believed that being prayed for sped up the time in which one stayed in purgatory and although during the modern day, living wills and testaments do not include the prayer portion, this was the main reason the concept was designed during the Middle Ages. Living wills often instructed people to pray for the deceased a set amount of times per day, week, or month, as well as the type of funeral service desired, with minute details being paid attention to (e.g. the type of candles which would burn alongside the gravestone etc.). Living wills and testaments also offered the bequeathing of physical, tangible items that the dead would no longer need. In the modern day, living wills and testaments do not include the prayer portion, but this was the main reason the concept was designed during the Middle Ages