The 4 main chemicals used by the Ancient Egyptians for mummification were natron as a drying agent, palm wine to cleanse the body and its cavities after organ removal, cedar oil to anoint, and bitumen as a glue. Natron is a naturally occurring mineral mixture primarily composed of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate, with traces of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate, and is harvested from dry lake beds (e.g. Wadi Natrun etc.). Natron’s high alkalinity and hygroscopic properties allow it to desiccate human remains by drawing out moisture, whilst simultaneously inhibiting bacterial growth and chemically breaking down lipids. Beyond preservation, natron also symbolized ritual purification and was used ubiquitously within Ancient Egypt (e.g. religious ceremonies, glass manufacturing, personal hygiene etc.). Palm wine, a fermented beverage comprised of the sap of date palms, was highly valued for its antiseptic and moderate alcoholic properties throughout history within Egypt. During mummification, wt/wety (pronounced “weh-tee”) the Ancient Egyptian term for “embalmers”, used palm wine to rinse the thoracic and abdominal cavities, ensuring that residual organic tissue was sterilized and virtually all odors eliminated. This cleansing was often accompanied by aromatic herbs and spices, believed to be used for both hygiene as well as ritual purification, reflecting the Ancient Egyptian ideological concern for both physical preservation and symbolic purification of the vessel for the soul. Cedar oil, a bit of a misnomer as it was often derived from juniper or other closely related coniferous tree sources rather than the cedar tree itself, was prized for its resinous, aromatic, and antimicrobial characteristics. Cedar oil was applied as an anointing oil to both the skin and the ḥbsw/ḥebesw (pronounced “heh-bes-oo”), which means “bandages” in the Late Egyptian language, but more literally translates to “wrappings”, both to soften and preserve tissues but also to imbue human remains with the fragrance of soil/wood, smoke, and camphor; scents associated with the pantheon of Egyptian deities. For those who could not afford this preservation method, cedar oil could be injected into the body cavity directly, in which its solvent properties dissolved soft tissues, leaving only skin and bone once the natron had absorbed the liquefied remains, raised the overall pH level to halt decomposition, and dried the cavity completely. Lastly bitumen was used, a naturally occurring petroleum product also referred to as “natural asphalt”, which was a black, viscous substance sourced from various geological deposits within the region (eg. the Dead Sea etc.). Although not universally used throughout all dynasties of the Ancient Egyptian state, bitumen became increasingly common in the most recent phases of Ancient Egyptian history, particularly during the Greco Roman period from 332 B.C. – 642 A.D. Bitumen’s adhesive and waterproofing capabilities allowed it to bind wrappings and seal the body shut, and its dark coloration may have been deliberately chosen to evoke Osiris, the Ancient Egyptian god of the underworld, often depicted with black skin and symbolizing both fertility and rebirth. Additionally, in terms of chemical composition, bitumen provided durability to the embalming balms used, with modern day analyses revealing it was typically blended with resins, lipids, and waxes rather than used in its most pure form
