Tag: wood

The 4 Primary Preservative Agents Used During Ancient Egyptian Mummification

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The 4 main chemicals used by the Ancient Egyptians for mummification were natron as a drying agent, palm wine to cleanse the body and its cavities after organ removal, cedar oil to anoint, and bitumen as a glue. Natron is a naturally occurring mineral mixture primarily composed of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate, with traces of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate, and is harvested from dry lake beds (e.g. Wadi Natrun etc.). Natron’s high alkalinity and hygroscopic properties allow it to desiccate human remains by drawing out moisture, whilst simultaneously inhibiting bacterial growth and chemically breaking down lipids. Beyond preservation, natron also symbolized ritual purification and was used ubiquitously within Ancient Egypt (e.g. religious ceremonies, glass manufacturing, personal hygiene etc.). Palm wine, a fermented beverage comprised of the sap of date palms, was highly valued for its antiseptic and moderate alcoholic properties throughout history within Egypt. During mummification, wt/wety (pronounced “weh-tee”) the Ancient Egyptian term for “embalmers”, used palm wine to rinse the thoracic and abdominal cavities, ensuring that residual organic tissue was sterilized and virtually all odors eliminated. This cleansing was often accompanied by aromatic herbs and spices, believed to be used for both hygiene as well as ritual purification, reflecting the Ancient Egyptian ideological concern for both physical preservation and symbolic purification of the vessel for the soul. Cedar oil, a bit of a misnomer as it was often derived from juniper or other closely related coniferous tree sources rather than the cedar tree itself, was prized for its resinous, aromatic, and antimicrobial characteristics. Cedar oil was applied as an anointing oil to both the skin and the ḥbsw/ḥebesw (pronounced “heh-bes-oo”), which means “bandages” in the Late Egyptian language, but more literally translates to “wrappings”, both to soften and preserve tissues but also to imbue human remains with the fragrance of soil/wood, smoke, and camphor; scents associated with the pantheon of Egyptian deities. For those who could not afford this preservation method, cedar oil could be injected into the body cavity directly, in which its solvent properties dissolved soft tissues, leaving only skin and bone once the natron had absorbed the liquefied remains, raised the overall pH level to halt decomposition, and dried the cavity completely. Lastly bitumen was used, a naturally occurring petroleum product also referred to as “natural asphalt”, which was a black, viscous substance sourced from various geological deposits within the region (eg. the Dead Sea etc.). Although not universally used throughout all dynasties of the Ancient Egyptian state, bitumen became increasingly common in the most recent phases of Ancient Egyptian history, particularly during the Greco Roman period from 332 B.C. – 642 A.D. Bitumen’s adhesive and waterproofing capabilities allowed it to bind wrappings and seal the body shut, and its dark coloration may have been deliberately chosen to evoke Osiris, the Ancient Egyptian god of the underworld, often depicted with black skin and symbolizing both fertility and rebirth. Additionally, in terms of chemical composition, bitumen provided durability to the embalming balms used, with modern day analyses revealing it was typically blended with resins, lipids, and waxes rather than used in its most pure form

The Viking Runic Alphabet

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The Vikings used runes upon their grave stones, weaponry, jewelry etc. which is a carved, angular and twisted writing, typically found with some kind of animal like the snake, which the Vikings were particularly fond of. The runic alphabet has 24 letters, nearly as many as the English alphabet which has 26 letters. The runic alphabet was inevitably forced to adapt and expand to 33 letters to produce new sounds, as the Vikings continuously conquered their neighbors and therefore required new ways to converse about these newly conquered lands. Initially, the Viking Elder Futhark alphabet featured 24 runes, but as Viking society evolved, it transitioned into the Younger Futhark alphabet, simplifying to 16 runes before expanding once again during the Medieval period to reflect these new sounds. The reason the runic alphabet is based upon vertical lines is because these were the easiest shapes to carve into stone and wood between the 9th and 11th centuries A.D. with the tools and technologies available to the Vikings within Scandinavia

How Flames Were Artificially Produced for Opera Productions During the 18th Century

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During the 18th century within opera and theater productions, stage doors which would lead a character to Hell achieved simulating the flames of Hell with brandy which would be placed into a container and lit on fire due to the fact that during the period, brandy was the brightest glowing flame available because of it’s high alcohol content. Once the brandy was burning bright, a powder referred to as “lycopodium” was blown across the flames to create an intense illumination, creating a fireball of sorts. It was in truth a very dangerous special effect to achieve because of the wooden sets, the actors involved, and the enclosure of the theatre itself. Most of those who performed the pyrotechnics for operas and plays during this period were ex-military, often soldiers who understood how these chemicals worked in depth as rocket technology was at the cutting edge of warfare during the era

The Reason Icebergs Sink Ships

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The reason that an iceberg is able to cut into the side hull of a ship (e.g. Titanic etc.) or any other marine vessel is dual fold. The first reason is because steel becomes more brittle, the colder it gets. Steel created during the early 20th century was not tempered as steel is during the modern day. The second reason is because of inertia, weight, and force. An iceberg can slash through steel the same way a tree can rip through a vehicle that has hit it. An iceberg is a large, immovable object, so whether the hull is comprised of wood or titanium, the ice will always win out as it has more inertia and mass. To provide a frame of reference, bone is incredibly strong and tensile, however if a brick which is harmless while at rest, slams down from a height above the arm, the force it imparts is enough to break said bone

Tudor Period Mining and Metal Smelting

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During the Tudor period, lead was utilized to build roofs and windows because it was easily mailable and resistive to corrosion. Farmers would mine for lead during the summer months when their crops did not need tending to in order to generate additional income. Mining during the summer months could earn an extra £5.00 which equates to £25,000 as of 2012 when accounting for inflation. Entire families often worked within the mines because 50 barrels worth of ore and soil would be extracted per day to meet the quota of what was required to be profitable. Smelting involved the use of white coal which is effectively dried wood from a kiln and was always setup upon windy hilltops or mountains because the wind would cause the fire blaze with more intensity therefore reaching higher overall temperatures. The best wood to make white coal is oak. Kilns must be airtight, so gaps were filled with clay. Knowing a kiln to be airtight was easily verifiable by searching for smoke as if smoke only came out of only the front entrance, the kiln was considered airtight. Ore was smashed into small pieces to help it smelt more rapidly which yielded approximately an 80% return upon investment. Metals were then refined using a secondary kiln, and smelted to remove any ash or impurities. The first burn removes ore from the rock, and the second burn removes impurities with the main impurity being sulphur. Molds were constructed using sand and wood to create divots which allowed the ore to be molded into blocks much the same as a modern day bar of gold. The sand gives the mold an indentation which archeologists use to identify Medieval bars of smelted ore

The Japanese Shinto Faith

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The Japanese Shinto religion translates to mean “way of the gods” in Japanese and primarily focuses upon ancestors and nature, with practitioners believing that every aspect of the universe has a deity (e.g. rivers have a god, mountains have a god, soil has a god etc.) with ancestors believed to have created the world for the current generation living within it. Japanese architecture is an excellent example of Shintoism as Shinto shrines are left in a minimalist state of color and simplicity, unlike contemporary Chinese architecture which is highly colorful and decorative. Shinto shrines never depict imagery of deities as the wood of the architecture itself is representative of nature, and from that simplicity and minimalism. This is also because it is believed that so many gods exist within nature that it would be foolish to only highlight a few in particular. Practitioners of Shinto observe festivals and holidays but no particular day of prayer, unlike monotheistic religions (e.g. Sunday for Christianity, Friday for Islam and Judaism etc.). There is no mainstay scripture of morality or ethical system attached to Shintoism. In Shintoism, old shrines are dismantled and moved for new shrines to be erected every 20 years. The 3 main elements of Shintoism are the mirror, precious stones, and wood

Preservation​ of Organic Material in The Black Sea

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The Black Sea off of the coast of the Ukraine is unique in that it has a dense layer of stagnant, oxygen deprived water which blankets its lower depths referred to as the “anoxic layer”. This layer has preserved shipwrecks perfectly, and is thought to preserve human remains as well, although none have been found. Anything organic which should rot away like wood, leather, cotton etc. stays completely intact for thousands of years under these conditions. It is theorized that 7500 years ago, the Black Sea was a landlocked, freshwater lake which crossed over a thin strip of land referred to as the “Bosphorus”, as the world’s oceans began to swell due to melting glaciers. This caused seawater to flood into the Black Sea and because it was more dense than the freshwater already there, it sank it to bottom and settled. The saltwater was cut off from the oxygen supply which it would normally receive from ocean currents. The anoxic layer is approximately 183 meters deep and produces hydrogen sulfide as a byproduct which is poisonous to most living creatures including those which consume and break down ships

Ancient Chinese Societal Classes 

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In ancient China the highest ranking members of society were educated scholars, followed by farmers, after which artisans (e.g. wood, steel, and pottery craftspeople) and finally merchants which was ranked the lowest because the mercantile tier did not produce any products of value, instead opting to buy and sell goods produced by others

Early vs Modern Paper and Bookworms

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Early paper was constructed using rags soaked in water which were then fermented. Paper constructed from wood did not emerge until the 19th century. The term “bookworm” derives from the wormholes found inside early printed books because bookworms often ate the fermented cloth paper