Category: Physiology

The First Assassination With a Firearm

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The first assassination using a firearm was of James Stewart the Earl of Moray, in 1570, who was assassinated by James Hamilton. Hamilton stalked Stewart for weeks, following him from Perth, Scotland to Stirling, Scotland, and finally pouncing when in Linlithgow, Scotland. Hamilton was well prepared, hanging a black cloth textile behind him so that his shadow could not been seen upon the street and putting down bird feathers to muffle the sound of his movements. As Stewart rode by, Hamilton raised up his weapon, a short barreled hunting carbine, and fired, hitting Stewart in the stomach. This shot caused much confusion but by the time Stewart and his entourage had figured out what occurred, Hamilton was long gone, as his escape route was pre-planned. Stewart managed to stumble to the home he was staying but died later that same evening. Hamilton was never caught for this crime but the entire act is immortalized in stained glass at Saint Giles’ Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland. This assassination caused chaos in Scotland and made the English court immensely nervous as bodyguards were no match for a distant assassin within the shadows who could pick off their target and vanish without a trace. Firearms were deemed during this era a threat to national security in Europe, especially after the advent of the wheel lock mechanism in 1515 which was a mechanized method of igniting gunpowder, allowing for the design of the pistol to work in practice for the very first time

How Plants Produce Food Via Photosynthesis

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If a leaf is magnified 1000x, green bacteria like structures can be observed, referred to as “chloroplasts,” which are packed into virtually every cell of a plant. These chloroplasts behave like bacteria, retaining their own deoxyribonucleic acid, and are only 5000ths of 1 millimeter (0.005 millimeters or 5 micrometers) in diameter. It is inside chloroplasts that photosynthesis occurs. Photons, which are tiny and rapid moving particles of electromagnetic energy (e.g. rays of light), are harvested upon the surface of the plant’s leaves, where they then enter the plant’s cells and are absorbed by the light harvesting complex located within the chloroplasts themselves. It is here that the photon is leveraged to drive the photolysis reaction, which is to split a water molecule and release oxygen, electrons, and hydrogen ions, fueling the energy transfer mechanisms that ultimately convert carbon dioxide into sugars for the plant’s growth and survival

The First Female Sculptor Within Italy During the Renaissance

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Properzia de Rossi, who was born in Bologna, Italy in 1490, aspired to become a sculptor and was the first female marble sculptor within Italy during the Renaissance of the 16th century. Although de Rossi left no diaries, fragments of her early work are still available during the modern day. Despite marble sculpting being viewed as a masculine art form during the Renaissance in that it required muscle to perform and an intelligent mind to create, both of which women were not thought to possess during this period. Because of this, de Rossi found her medium in other art forms, most notably her “Madonna of Mercy” within the Grassi Family Crest work which was a silver crest with 11 nectarine buttons which were carved intricately with small images of religious piety. By 1525, aged 35, de Rossi entered a contest for the main cathedral basilica of Bologna, San Petronio, of which she won. The piece was named “Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife” which depicts a fallen women who’s breasts are exposed, rising off of her bed to try and claim her husband as he leaves. It was believed during the period that it was unthinkable for a woman to study the male nude form through nudity. Because de Rossi’s sculptures were so accurate, it was assumed she knew too much of the male form and therefore she was dammed for her talent. In 1530, de Rossi died penniless and alone, a retched end for a great artist who was pushed out of society due to the sheer beauty and creativity of her work. Had de Rossi not been a victim of her time, she would have been celebrated with the most revered male Renaissance artists

The Caribbean Village of Biological Males Born Without Male Genitalia

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There is a village in the Dominican Republic called Salinas, in which 1 in 90 of the people born are born as males, with testicles, but without a penis, because of misconstrued instructions at birth. In males, the gene on the Y chromosome, specifically the Sex Determining Region Y (SRY), instructs the gonads to become testicles. This leads to the creation of dihydrotestosterone which is a stronger version of testosterone. Dihydrotestosterone transforms the tubercle which all males and females have, into a penis. Females do not make dihydrotestosterone, therefore their gonads become ovaries, and the tubercle becomes a clitoris. Infants perceived as female at birth, due to a lack of dihydrotestosterone during fetal development, later develop a penis during puberty when testosterone triggers penile growth, as it does in typical male development. Those who lack the ability to create dihydrotestosterone, as is the case with those born as males but raised as females in the Caribbean village of Salinas, Dominican Republic where it is common, are technically male, but without a penis, a condition referred to as “5 alpha reductase deficiency”. This condition is quite well accepted in this part of the world and even has a term which is “guevedoce(s)”, (pronounced “guava-doh-chey”) which means “penis/testicles at 12” in Spanish. This condition whilst common in this region of the Caribbean, it is very rare in other parts of the world

The Color of Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Cleopatra’s Skin

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Cleopatra VII, the last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt, was of Macedonian descent, which makes her Greek, as her family was established by Ptolemy I, a soldier who later became a General within Alexander III’s military force, a person more commonly referred to as “Alexander the Great”. The Ptolemies practiced interfamily marriage, meaning siblings, or more uncommonly cousins etc., as Cleopatra herself married her brother, therefore her ancestry was predominantly Greek. The caveat to this is that the identity of Cleopatra’s mother is unclear, leaving a lot of room for speculation of potential Egyptian as well as other African or regional influences. As for her skin color specifically, historical depictions and recorded texts do not provide clear evidence, but based upon her Greek heritage, she likely had a light olive complexion, common in persons of Mediterranean lineage during the modern day. Cleopatra’s exact skin tone however remains uncertain without genetic evidence as her remains have never been identified and/or located

The Fallacy of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte Being Short in Stature

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Napoleon Bonaparte was not actually short in stature, in fact he was of average height. This misconception stems from paperwork being written about Bonaparte which states that he was 5’2″, written as 5 pieds 2 pouces within France during the early 19th century, but it was from a French town which used an antiquated unit of measurement referred to as the “French foot”, which classified the imperial measurement of 1′ as 13″ instead of the 12″ which is what 1′ is stated to be within the imperial measurement system. When accounting for this error in transcription, it would appear that Bonaparte was actually 5’7″ which during the last half of the 18th and beginning half of the 19th century when Bonaparte was alive, was considered average, or even slightly above average in regard to the stature of height. The fallacy of Bonaparte being short was exaggerated by English propaganda, particularly satirical cartoons which portrayed Bonaparte as small and temperamental, affixing this image to Bonaparte for centuries and into the modern day

How Wedding Ceremonies Worked Within Europe During the Medieval Period

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Medieval weddings were carried out much the same as they are during the modern day with any witnesses present being provided 3 distinct opportunities to object to the marriage with the most common objections being that the parties involved were too close in relation by blood and/or the age of the bride was too young to accept the concept of marriage and/or bare a child. A ring and a piece of gold or silver was placed upon the Christian Bible held by the priest conducting the ceremony, in an effort to have the ring blessed, after which the priest would take the brides right hand and in Latin say “In nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Amen” which means “in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. With truth” in Latin. The priest would touch each finger, starting with the thumb, after saying each part of the Holy Trinity, ending upon the 4th finger when saying “amen”, which became the finger which the wedding ring was placed upon. It was not uncommon for both men and women to wear their wedding rings on their thumbs or middle fingers until the 17th century as any finger was considered acceptable. After undertaking vows, both the husband and wife would lay down to be covered in a shroud, afterwhich they would arise as a newly married couple. This practice was symbolic of a marriage transforming 2 unique individuals into a single person married to Jesus Christ. Finally, the priest would then kiss both the bride and groom upon their face, typically the cheek, and put the couple to bed to ensure consummation of the marriage, at which point, the marriage ceremony was considered complete

The Reason Japanese Samurai Shave the Top of Their Head

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The practice of “chonmage” (pronounced “chon-mah-geh”) which means “tied knot on top” in Japanese is the reason Japanese samurai shaved the tops of their heads, in a pattern reminiscent of male pattern baldness. Japanese Samurai shaved the top of their heads in this particular style for both pragmatic and symbolic reasons. The shaved portion of the head helped secure their helmets referred to as “kabuto” which means “helmet” in Japanese, making them more comfortable but also prevented overheating during battle. Over time, the chonmage became a status symbol within Japanese society, symbolically representing a samurai’s loyalty and discipline. The chonmage aesthetic also reflected the samurai’s adherence to Bushido, the warrior code. Different variations of chonmage emerged within Japan over the centuries, with the style remaining a distinctive hallmark of the samurai class until the Meiji Restoration in 1868 when Japan modernized and abolished the traditional feudal samurai system

How Armor Was Decorated During the Medieval Period

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Armor was embroidered during the Medieval period by using oil and lead paint to mark off ornate areas which would stand out and perhaps be decorated with gold or other precious metals in a process referred to as “gilding”. Gold does not easily bind to any type of metal and the only way to properly do so is to undergo a process which involves mixing the gold with mercury. Once applied, a mixture of salt, vinegar, and copper sulphate, which is root killer, makes a paste which eats through the metal leaving the painted parts untouched, and resulting in an etched piece of armor. Blacksmiths sometimes heat treated armor which turned it a blueish hue which essentially rusts the metal as it is referred to as an “oxide” and an oxide occurs when a metal comes into contact with oxygen which reacts with the metal and creates a deposit when heated to a very specific temperature, as the heat is what shifts the red color of rust to the blue area of the color spectrum

The First Human Beings to Migrate to North America

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The first people to arrive in North America are suspected to have arrived 15,800 years ago. Sea levels were much lower because of polar ice caps being frozen, which allowed modern day Siberia and Alaska, United States of America, to be connected. How migration occurred is still debated, with some scholars hypothesizing that walking whilst hunting large mammals was the most likely way, while others propose that the indigenous people of North America hunted along the shoreline using maritime skill sets and travel vehicles. 10,000 years ago, the ice sheets receded northbound allowing for civilizations to domesticate northern British Columbia, Canada